RESUMO
Muitos estudos sugerem a existência de uma relação recíproca entre escrita e motivação. O principal objetivo do presente estudo foi o de validar um questionário que permita avaliar a autoeficácia, os objetivos, as crenças e as atitudes em relação à escrita. Foi conduzida uma análise fatorial através de uma análise de componentes principais. Para a autoeficácia, foram encontrados fatores para as tarefas e para as estratégias. Para os objetivos, um fator de mestria e outro de desempenho ou resultado. Para as crenças, um fator relacionado com o conteúdo e outro com as convenções. Para as atitudes, um único fator. O presente questionário revela-se fundamental para a investigação a se desenvolver futuramente sobre as relações entre a escrita e a motivação.
A large corpus of empirical evidence suggests a reciprocal relation between writing and motivation. The main goal of the current study was to validate a questionnaire that is able to measure self-efficacy, goal orientation, beliefs, and affect towards writing. Exploratory factor analyses were conducted using principal components analysis (PCA). Concerning self-efficacy, factors were found for writing tasks and for writing strategies. As for goal orientation, factors were found for mastery and for performance. For beliefs, factors were found for beliefs related with content and with linguistic conventions. A single factor was found for affect. The multifactorial motivation measure developed in the present study will be essential in future research aiming to deepen the understanding of the relationship between writing and motivation.
Muchos estudios sugieren la existencia de una relación recíproca entre la escritura y la motivación. El objetivo principal de este estudio fue validar un cuestionario que permita evaluar la autoeficacia, objetivos, creencias y actitudes hacia la escritura. Se realizó un análisis factorial a través de un análisis de componentes principales. Para la autoeficacia, se encontraron factores para las tareas y estrategias. Para los objetivos, se encontró un factor de aprendizaje y otro factor de desempeño o de resultado. Para las creencias, un factor se relaciona con el contenido y el otro con las convenciones. Para las actitudes, un único factor. Este cuestionario es fundamental para el desarrollo de futuras investigaciones sobre la relación entre escritura y motivación.
RESUMO
Este artículo presenta una revisión de estudios que documentan intervenciones dirigidas a la enseñanza de estrategias metacognitivas para mejorar los procesos de composición escrita de estudiantes. Se analizaron 42 artículos de investigación publicados entre los años 2002 y 2013, los cuales fueron reseñados en una matriz que permitió identificar sus objetivos, diseños, programas instruccionales, resultados y aportes. Los análisis de las intervenciones mostraron efectividad en el mejoramiento de las producciones escritas de los estudiantes en cuanto a su calidad y desarrollo de habilidades metacognitivas como la planificación, monitoreo y revisión de las producciones escritas. Se identificaron recomendaciones para seguir profundizando en la temática abordada y generar lineamientos para el diseño de programas de intervención psico-educativos que contribuyan al mejoramiento de la composición escrita.
The aim of this article is to present a literature review on metacognitive strategies instruction for improving writing processes in students. 42 studies published since 2002 to 2013 were analyzed in a chart, where their objectives, designs, instructional programs and methodological issues were registered; also their results and contributions. Results show programs were effective for improving the students' written texts, in terms of quality and development of metacognitive skills such as planning, monitoring and reviewing of written productions. Finally, suggestions were identified in order to continue studying this topic in greater depth, to provide some guidelines for the design of programs of psycho-educational intervention to help improve written composition.
RESUMO
Se evaluó el papel de la respuesta del lector y del uso de ejemplos en la elaboración de procedimientos de un escritor en estudiantes universitarios, en dos sesiones: en la primera 36 escritores describieron una figura y una ruta en un mapa; en la segunda, los escritores fueron distribuidos en tres grupos: DM: 12 escritores modificaron sus descripciones con base en ejemplos de procedimientos similares y en dibujos elaborados por 12 lectores; D: 12 escritores modificaron sus textos con base en dibujos de 12 lectores y SDSM: 12 escritores hicieron modificaciones sin ver dibujos ni ejemplos. Los grupos DM y D hicieron descripciones más precisas. Se discute la relevancia de analizar las interacciones escritoras en función del propósito y la complejidad de la tarea.
The article presents the results of a research project aimed at evaluating the role of reader response and the use of examples in the writing procedures used by university students. Two sessions were held. In the first one, 36 writers described a figure and a route on a map; in the second, the writers were divided into three groups: DM: 12 writers modified their descriptions on the basis of examples of similar procedures and of drawings made by 12 readers; D: 12 writers modified their texts on the basis of the drawings made by 12 readers; and SDSM: 12 writers made changes without having seen either drawings or examples. Groups DM and D produced more precise descriptions. The paper discusses the relevance of analyzing writing interactions with respect to the purpose and complexity of the task.
Avaliou-se o papel da resposta do leitor e do uso de exemplos na elaboração de procedimentos de um escritor em estudantes universitários, em duas sessões: na primeira, 36 escritores descreveram uma figura e uma rota em um mapa; na segunda, os escritores foram distribuídos em três grupos: DM -12 escritores modificaram suas descrições com base em exemplos de procedimentos similares e em desenhos elaborados por 12 leitores; D -12 escritores modificaram seus textos com base em desenhos de 12 leitores, e SDSM -12 escritores fizeram modificações sem ver desenhos nem exemplos. Os grupos DM e D fizeram descrições mais precisas. Discute-se a relevância de analisar as interações escritoras em função do propósito e da complexidade da tarefa.
Assuntos
Humanos , Linguística , Redação , Retroalimentação PsicológicaRESUMO
En el estudio que se informa se analizó la fluidez del trazado manual en un grupo de niños argentinos que eran alumnos de tercer grado. Se pretendió, por un lado comparar las medidas de velocidad de copia con las consignadas por un estudio de referencia y por otro, explorar la relación entre el comportamiento de esta variable y el uso de la escritura en contexto de redacción. Este trabajo se alinea con la literatura que indaga el comportamiento de la memoria operativa durante la escritura. Tales estudios verificaron que la falta de fluidez en los procesos de transcripción restringe la ejecución de los procesos de composición escrita. Participaron 122 niños de tercer grado de distintas escuelas que fueron evaluados a través de una prueba de copia y una narración escrita de cuento. Algunos resultados se alinearon con la literatura: la velocidad media de copia resultó próxima a la detectada en el estudio de referencia (Graham, Weintraub & Berninger, 1998) y las niñas copiaron significativamente más rápido que los niños. Por otra parte, se verificó una variación entre las escuelas que fue vinculada con la influencia que ejercen las distintas modalidades de instrucción en el desarrollo de la fluidez. Por último, se encontraron correlaciones significativas entre la velocidad de copia y la precisión de la representación de las palabras en las narraciones. Con este resultado se interpretó la influencia que ejerce la fluidez en el acceso a representaciones ortográficas de palabras en actividades de escritura de distinto nivel de complejidad. También se consignan las implicaciones pedagógicas del estudio realizado.
The present study analyzes the handwriting fluency in a group of children who finished third grade of elementary education in Argentina. This work aims, on the one hand, to compare fluency level of these children, with a sample taken from other reference study; and on the other hand, to explore the relationship between handwriting fluency and measures of quality of writing composition. Consistently with the literature that characterized the function of working memory (WM) during writing (Berninger & Swamson, 1996; Kellogg, 1996; McCutchen, 1996, 2000) the present work considers that the lack of proficiency in handwriting severely limits composition processes. In fact, if the writer has to focus his orher attention during composing to mechanical demands, such as think in the particular form of the letter, he or she may forget ideas or plans already held in WM (Graham & Weintraub, 1996). Children of third grade were chosen because literature in this field indicates that pupils of this level should reach a basic degree of mastery in handwriting processes. Also because the national language curriculum at the primary-school level in Argentina, in contrast with the policies adopted in most educational systems in the world, has relegated the development of transcription processes (handwriting, spelling, phonological awareness, orthographic knowledge) to a tangential or non-existent position. One hundred and twenty two children of different SES were assessed. All of them were selected from a total of six schools in the cities of Corrientes and Resistencia in Argentina. Children were evaluated through two tests: a copying text and story writing. The first one estimated hand-writing speed (with letters per minute measure), whilst the second one assessed different characteristics of text quality (length, word-segmentation errors and orthographic mistakes). The comparison of speed of copy against a sample of United States (Graham, Weintraub & Berninger, 1998) showed that the average results obtained by children of this study, reach similar level of fluency of the participants of that reference sample. In the same vein than specialized literature, it was found that girls copied faster than boys (Berninger & Fuller, 1992). In addition, differences associated with the school of attendance were found. This result was interpreted as a remark of the importance that instructional factor has in the development of handwriting fluency. An analysis of correlation showed that it could not be detected any associations between speed of copy and length of the story composed. This was a surprising result since it was supposed that differences of fluency among schools would be associated with differences of text length. It was documented that differences in handwriting fluency predict the amount and quality of children writing (Jones & Christensen, 1990). The non-significant correlation was related to the low quality of most of the texts written by children. Bourdin and Fayol (2002) specified that when the task of writing is too easy, it is difficult to detect the influence of transcription on composition processes. Finally, significant associations were detected between fluency and problems of word representation (spelling and word segmentation) in the texts composed. These results showed that the lack of fluency in the access to the orthographic representations of words is related to both tasks of writing above mentioned. When this kind of representation is not easily available, the writer uses anti-economic strategies of word writing, like phonological analysis. It was observed that these processes reduced the speed of handwriting in the copy task and caused orthographic mistakes in the story writing. An extra evidence of this situation was observed during the copy test. In this task, children who copied particularly slow, whispered a phonological analysis in most of the words that they were copying. Although several researches that examined the performance of children with writing difficulties, reported lack of writing continuity during the copy, there were not found references in that studies to this process of phonological analysis. Pedagogical implications of these findings were also considered through the present study.
RESUMO
En el estudio que se informa se analizó la fluidez del trazado manual en un grupo de niños argentinos que eran alumnos de tercer grado. Se pretendió, por un lado comparar las medidas de velocidad de copia con las consignadas por un estudio de referencia y por otro, explorar la relación entre el comportamiento de esta variable y el uso de la escritura en contexto de redacción. Este trabajo se alinea con la literatura que indaga el comportamiento de la memoria operativa durante la escritura. Tales estudios verificaron que la falta de fluidez en los procesos de transcripción restringe la ejecución de los procesos de composición escrita. Participaron 122 niños de tercer grado de distintas escuelas que fueron evaluados a través de una prueba de copia y una narración escrita de cuento. Algunos resultados se alinearon con la literatura: la velocidad media de copia resultó próxima a la detectada en el estudio de referencia (Graham, Weintraub & Berninger, 1998) y las niñas copiaron significativamente más rápido que los niños. Por otra parte, se verificó una variación entre las escuelas que fue vinculada con la influencia que ejercen las distintas modalidades de instrucción en el desarrollo de la fluidez. Por último, se encontraron correlaciones significativas entre la velocidad de copia y la precisión de la representación de las palabras en las narraciones. Con este resultado se interpretó la influencia que ejerce la fluidez en el acceso a representaciones ortográficas de palabras en actividades de escritura de distinto nivel de complejidad. También se consignan las implicaciones pedagógicas del estudio realizado.(AU)
The present study analyzes the handwriting fluency in a group of children who finished third grade of elementary education in Argentina. This work aims, on the one hand, to compare fluency level of these children, with a sample taken from other reference study; and on the other hand, to explore the relationship between handwriting fluency and measures of quality of writing composition. Consistently with the literature that characterized the function of working memory (WM) during writing (Berninger & Swamson, 1996; Kellogg, 1996; McCutchen, 1996, 2000) the present work considers that the lack of proficiency in handwriting severely limits composition processes. In fact, if the writer has to focus his orher attention during composing to mechanical demands, such as think in the particular form of the letter, he or she may forget ideas or plans already held in WM (Graham & Weintraub, 1996). Children of third grade were chosen because literature in this field indicates that pupils of this level should reach a basic degree of mastery in handwriting processes. Also because the national language curriculum at the primary-school level in Argentina, in contrast with the policies adopted in most educational systems in the world, has relegated the development of transcription processes (handwriting, spelling, phonological awareness, orthographic knowledge) to a tangential or non-existent position. One hundred and twenty two children of different SES were assessed. All of them were selected from a total of six schools in the cities of Corrientes and Resistencia in Argentina. Children were evaluated through two tests: a copying text and story writing. The first one estimated hand-writing speed (with letters per minute measure), whilst the second one assessed different characteristics of text quality (length, word-segmentation errors and orthographic mistakes). The comparison of speed of copy against a sample of United States (Graham, Weintraub & Berninger, 1998) showed that the average results obtained by children of this study, reach similar level of fluency of the participants of that reference sample. In the same vein than specialized literature, it was found that girls copied faster than boys (Berninger & Fuller, 1992). In addition, differences associated with the school of attendance were found. This result was interpreted as a remark of the importance that instructional factor has in the development of handwriting fluency. An analysis of correlation showed that it could not be detected any associations between speed of copy and length of the story composed. This was a surprising result since it was supposed that differences of fluency among schools would be associated with differences of text length. It was documented that differences in handwriting fluency predict the amount and quality of children writing (Jones & Christensen, 1990). The non-significant correlation was related to the low quality of most of the texts written by children. Bourdin and Fayol (2002) specified that when the task of writing is too easy, it is difficult to detect the influence of transcription on composition processes. Finally, significant associations were detected between fluency and problems of word representation (spelling and word segmentation) in the texts composed. These results showed that the lack of fluency in the access to the orthographic representations of words is related to both tasks of writing above mentioned. When this kind of representation is not easily available, the writer uses anti-economic strategies of word writing, like phonological analysis. It was observed that these processes reduced the speed of handwriting in the copy task and caused orthographic mistakes in the story writing. An extra evidence of this situation was observed during the copy test. In this task, children who copied particularly slow, whispered a phonological analysis in most of the words that they were copying. Although several researches that examined the performance of children with writing difficulties, reported lack of writing continuity during the copy, there were not found references in that studies to this process of phonological analysis. Pedagogical implications of these findings were also considered through the present study.(AU)
RESUMO
Se evaluó el papel del contacto visual del escritor con lo que escribe, sobre la coherencia y precisión. 24 estudiantes de psicología leyeron un artículo de un diario, después escribieron una cita y su opinión. En la segunda sesión, realizaron tareas similares pero leyeron otro artículo. Se formaron 2 grupos, en uno, los participantes no tenían contacto visual con lo que escribían (SCV) y en el otro si tenían contacto visual (CV). El grupo CV escribió textos más precisos. Ambos grupos alcanzaron índices de coherencia similares. Se discute que la relevancia de revisar lo que se escribe depende de otros elementos de la interacción escritora específica. Se sugiere revalorar el concepto de revisión en el análisis de la elaboración de textos.
We evaluated the role of the visual contact with what the writer writes, on the coherence and precision. 24 students of psychology read an article of a diary, later they wrote a quote and their opinion. In the second session, conducted similar tasks but read another article. There were 2 groups, in one, the participants did not have visual contact with what was writing (NCV) and in other one did have visual contact (CV). The group CV wrote more precise texts. Both groups reached similar indexes of coherence. There is discussed that the relevancy of revision what one writes depends on other elements of the specific written interaction. It is suggested to revaluate the concept of revision in the analysis of the elaboration of texts.
